Notes on English 306A First Examination -- February 8, 2000

1. Consider these two statements: I learned a new word today and I learned a new sentence today Do you think the two statements are equally probable, and if not, why not?

   The key to answering this question is to recognize and discuss the difference between words which must be memorized along with their meanings and sentences which are created using rules for manipulating the words which we have learned. There are so many words in any language (although the number is finite) that it is very likely that a person may learn a new word. However, except in very special and unusual circumstances it is unlikely that a person will learn a 'new' sentence.

   Pointing out that sentences are infinite and that one is more likely to hear a new sentence than a new word does not get credit because it does not recognize the essential difference between learning a new word and producing a sentence using rules of internal grammar.

   Sample Answer

   The statements "I learned a new word today" and "I learned a new sentence today" are not equally probable. The first is much more likely than the second.

   When I say "I learned a new word today," I mean that I now have a new entry in my mental lexicon. I know the phonology of the word and its meaning. I can recall it for future use. New words become available to us on a regular basis because any language has a vast number of words and new ones are created all the time. No one knows all the words in even a short dictionary, so the likelihood of coming across a new word is very high.

   Sentences, on the other hand, are not learned, they are created based on the internal knowledge of grammar. Thus, unless someone is trying to memorize a particularly difficult passage for a play, he or she will not say "I learned a new sentence today". He or she will more likely look up the words he or she does not know and learn a new word.

   Tip: A thoughtful examination of one's own daily experience might have provided the necessary insight for at least partial credit on this question. How likely is it for you to produce each of the two sentences?

2. Discuss the difference between prescriptive grammar and descriptive grammar. Illustrate with specific examples.

   A good answer to this question must recognize that the two types of grammar represent two entirely different approaches to the study and use of language. Prescriptive grammar starts with the assumption that there is a pre-existing correct form of the language which must be preserved and defended against incorrect and corrupting influences. Prescriptive grammar sets out rules which are supposedly derived by logic or determined by precedence in a supposedly 'purer' language such as Latin or Greek. It attempts to impose a particular form of the language, e.g., that spoken by educated speakers or speakers from an 'upper class'. Prescriptive grammar may be useful in learning to speak a form of the language which will gain respect or acceptance, but it merely serves roughly the same function as etiquette in social matters.

   Descriptive grammar, on the other hand, starts with the language as it is actually spoken by native speakers of the language and attempts to describe its nature and behaviour. It does not start with presuppositions about 'correctness' and 'purity' of language. Descriptive grammar attempts to discover the rules which govern the learning and production of the language and to make general statements about these processes. It adopts a more scientific and non-judgmental approach to language. It is open to change and to the acceptance in appropriate circumstances, of 'non-standard' usage. Descriptive grammar also concerns itself with the study of dialects and spoken language.

   Descriptive grammar is not the innate or internal grammar itself. It is a description of that grammar. Discussion of the internal grammar as such is not particularly relevant to the definition of descriptive grammar, though it might be mentioned. Credit is not given for a discussion of internal grammar as such.

   Specific examples (more than one) of each type of grammar must be given for an answer to receive full marks.

   Sample Answer

   Descriptive grammar is the attempt of linguists to describe accurately the rules of phonology, morphology, semantics and syntax as well as the lexicon of a language. Descriptive grammar is concerned with model grammar (set out by common rules, and patterns) and mental grammar ( the internalized grammar couched in our minds). It posits that no language or dialect is inherently inferior to another. It is open to language change.

   Prescriptive grammar is based upon the belief that language should be 'pure' and free from change. Change is viewed as a corruption of languages. Prescriptive grammar starts with presuppositions about what people should say based upon notion of 'logic' or precedence in a 'superior' language or dialect such as Latin, Greek or a socially desirable class.

   Examples:

   Prescriptive Grammar

   Don't use ain't

   Don't use a double negative

   Say "It is I," not "It is me".

   Descriptive Grammar

   The plural is formed in English by adding -s to a root or stem

   The addition of the -ion bound, derivational suffix to a verb produces a noun

   'They' is frequently used in place of the first person singular pronoun

3. Read the following passage from Orwell's 1984, and answer the questions following it:
   • "The purpose of Newspeak was not only to provide a medium of expression for the world-view and mental habits proper to the devotees of Ingsoc, but to make all other modes of thought impossible. It was intended that when Newspeak had been adopted once and all and Oldspeak forgotten, a heretical thought -- That is, a thought diverging from the principles of Ingsoc -- should be literally unthinkable, at least so far as thought is dependent on words."
   1. For each italicized word in the passage above, identify its lexical category (part of speech) and whether it is derived or compound. Then list the morphemes making up the word and indicate for each constituent morpheme whether it is a stem, prefix or suffix; a bound or free form; and for prefixes and suffixes, whether they are inflectional or derivational morphemes. This can be arranged in columns, thus:

      diverging	(V):	diverg(e)	Stem	Free
      Derivational		-ing	Suf.	Bound	Inflec.

      Partial credit was awarded for correct part of speech, correct identification of word formation type, correct morpheme identification, and correct morpheme labeling. Conversely points were deducted for incomplete or incorrect identifications and labeling. Distinction between root and stem was covered in classroom lectures and should have been recognized. In general, credit was most often lost for failing to identify all the morphemes in a word, particularly prefixes and suffixes. Another area of weakness was in identifying parts of speech.
      You should notice that since there were eleven italicized words and since three marks were given for each word, it was possible to make 33 points on the question or to skip one of the words and still make a full 30 marks. In effect this meant a bonus of three marks on the question. Note:In the marking BF stands for Bound Form.

      1.	Newspeak	(N)	New	stem	free
      	compound		speak	stem	free
      2.	expression	(N)	ex	prefix	bound	deriv.
      	derived		press	stem	bound
      			ion	suffix	bound	derived
      3.	world-view	(N)	world	stem	free
      	compound		view	stem	free
      4.	devotees	(N)	de	prefix	bound	deriv.
      	derived		vot(e)	stem	bound
      			ee	suffix	bound	deriv.
      			s	suffix	bound	inflec
      5.	impossible	(ADJ)	im	prefix	bound	deriv.
      	derived		poss	stem	bound
      			ible	suffix	bound	deriv.
      6.	intended	(V)	in	prefix	bound	deriv
      	derived		tend	stem	free
      			ed	suffix	bound	inflec
      7.	forgotten	(V)	for	prefix	bound	deriv.
      	derived		got	stem	free
      			en	suffix	inflec.
      8.	heretical	(ADJ)	heret	stem	bound
      	derived		ic	suffix	bound	deriv.
      			al	suffix	bound	deriv.
      9.	literally	(ADV)	liter	stem	bound
      	derived		al	suffix	bound	deriv.
      			ly	suffix	bound	deriv.
      10.	unthinkable	(ADJ)	un	prefix	bound	deriv.
      	derived		think	stem	free
      			able	suffix	bound	deriv.
      11.	dependent	(ADJ)	de	prefix	bound	deriv.
      	derived		pend	stem	bound
      			ent	suffix	bound	deriv.

      Tip: "ible" and "able" should be recognized as similar morphemes as should "un" and "im". Many people were able to analyze 'unthinkable' but unable to analyze 'impossible'.

   2. Show the hierarchical structure with parts of speech labeling for impossible, unthinkable, and expression.

      You should use tree diagrams or brackets to indicate the hierarchical structure of the morphemes. Very little credit is given for simply breaking the word into morphemes. Part of speech labeling must be included.

      Link to Tree Diagrams

      impossible: [(im)((poss)(ible))]

      im- : negative prefix

      possible : adjective

      -ible: adjectival suffix

      devotee: [((de)(vote))(ee)]

      devot(e): verb

      de-: verb-forming prefix

      vot(e): verb

      -ee: noun-forming suffix

      unthinkable: [(un)((think)(able))]

      un- : negative prefix (like 'im' above)

      thinkable: adjective

      think: verb

      -able: adjectival suffix

   3. What information should morphological rules of word formation capture about derived words? Give morphological rules for the derivational suffix -ion in expression, -ee in devotee and -able in unthinkable. For each of these give examples of other words formed with these suffixes.

      In this answer you should demonstrate that you understand what morphological rules are and how they operate. Then you should clearly show that you know what the rule in question is that is being applied in each of the examples. You should demonstrate that the rule works (is productive) by giving other applications of the rule that give a similar result.

      Sample Answer

      Morphological rules should examine words derived by the rule for:
      • change in pronunciation
      • change in form
      • change in meaning
      • change in part of speech
      Examples:
      • expression: -ion a bound nominalizing suffix was added to the verb express
        Changes which occur:
        • 's' sound changes to 'sh' sound
        • express(verb) is changed to a noun
        Other examples: digress-->digression;extend --> extension

      • devotee: -ee a bound nominalizing suffix meaning 'one who is verb-ed' is added to a verb (devote)
        Changes which occur:
        • devote(verb) is changed to a noun
        • meaning 'one who is verb-ed' is added
        • stress shifts to the suffix
        Other examples: employ --> employee; draft --> draftee

      • unthinkable
        Changes which occur:
        • the verb 'think' is changed to an adjective 'thinkable'
        • the meaning '-able to be verb-ed' is added.
        Other examples: read --> readable drink --> drinkable reach --> reachable
4. Words in the second column have been created from the corresponding word in the first. Indicate the word formation process responsible for the creation of each new word:

   Source	Result	Process
   automation	automate	back formation
   humid	humidifier	derivation
   information + entertainment	infotainment	blend
   love + seat	loveseat	compound
   (to) reject	(a) reject	conversion
   typographical error	typo	abbreviation or clipping
   perambulator	pram	abbreviation or clipping
   beef + buffalo	beefalo	blend
   random access memory	RAM	Acronym
   megabyte	meg	abbreviation or clipping

This page was last updated 29 February 2000

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